Difference between revisions of "Density"

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(→‎Density of materials at different temperatures)
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====Carbon disulfide====
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====Carbon monoxide====
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====Carbon tetrachloride====
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====Chloroform====
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| style="text-align:center;"| 1,394
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Revision as of 19:39, 23 January 2016

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The term density is the mass of a substance per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, and sometimes the letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

ρ = m/V

Where m = mass of the substance, V = volume.

Density is measured in g/cm3 or kg/m3.

The density of a substance is influenced by a variety of factors, such as pressure or temperature. They have little influence for most solid materials, but there's a significant effect on the density of solids and liquids.

Density is calculated depending on the type of material:

  • Homogeneous materials: The density at all regions of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume.
  • Heterogeneous materials: The density varies between different regions of the object. The density of heterogeneous materials is calculated by determining the densities of many small volumes around various locations of the said material.
  • Non-compact materials: Materials such as flakes, pellets, granules or powders contain voids, such as air, water or other fluids. The density of such materials is determined by multiple methods, such as pycnometer method or mathematical expressions for various geometric shapes.

List of densities

Common densities

Material Density (kg/m3) Notes
Hydrogen 0.08988 At 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Helium 0.146 At 300 K and 101.325 kPa
Aerographite 0.2 The air inside is excluded
Ammonia (gas) 0.73 At 1.013 bar at 15 °C
Neon (gas) 0.9 At 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Metallic microlattice 0.9 The air inside is excluded
Aerogel 1.0 The air inside is excluded
Acetylene (gas) 1.106 At 15 °C[1]
Carbon monoxide (gas) 1.145 At 25 °C, 1 atm
Nitrogen (gas) 1.251 At 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Air 1.29 At 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Oxygen (gas) 1.308 At 300 K (27 °C)
Fluorine (gas) 1.696 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Argon (gas) 1.784 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Nitrous oxide (gas) 1.8724 At 15 °C and 1.013 bar
Carbon dioxide (gas) 1.977 At 1 atm and 0 °C
Butane (gas) 2.489 n-Butane, at 20 °C and 1.013 bar
Chlorine (gas) 3.2 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Krypton (gas) 3.749 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Xenon (gas) 5.894 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Sulfur hexafluoride (gas) 6.164 At 1 bar and 20 °C
Radon (gas) 9.73 0 °C and 101.325 kPa
Tungsten hexafluoride (gas) 12.4 Standard conditions
Freon 12 (gas) 36.83 Standard conditions
Hydrogen (liquid) 70 At –255 °C
Styrofoam 75 Average type of styrofoam
Hydrogen (slush) 85 At -259 °C
Hydrogen (solid) 86 At <−259.14 °C
Helium (liquid) 147 At 4 K
Cork 240 Average type of cork
Pine 373
Asbestos fibers 400
Grain (oat) 410
Methane (liquid) 422.62 At 111.5 K
Lithium 535
Corn starch (loosely packed) 540 Negligible moisture
Grain (rice, rough) 580
Grain (barley) 620
Corn starch (tightly packed) 630 Negligible moisture
Grain (millet) 640
Ammonia (liquid) 681.9 At boiling point
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 691.94 At 20°C[2]
Acetylene (liquid) 693 At atmospheric pressure
Wood 700 Seasoned, typical
Oak 710
Grain (rye) 720
Grain (corn, shelled) 720
Aluminium silicate 721
Grain (rice, hulled) 750
Grain (flax) 770
Grain (wheat) 770
RP-1 773 At 25°C
Cyclohexane 778.1 At 20°C
Lithium hydride 780 [3]
Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine 783 At 25°C
Acetonitrile 786 Anhydrous, at 25 °C[4]
Isopropanol 786 Anhydrous, at 20 °C
Carbon monoxide (liquid) 789 At boiling point
Ethanol 789 Anhydrous, at 20 °C
Acetone 790
Methanol 791.5 Anhydrous, at 20 °C
Diesel 800 At standard conditions
Gasoline 803 Average type, standard conditions
Nitrogen (liquid) 808 At boiling point
Butanol 809.8 n-Butanol, at 20 °C
Kerosene 810 At standard conditions, standard composition
Formaldehyde 815.3 At −20 °C
2-Octanone 820 At 20 °C[5]
Lithium-6 deuteride 820
UH25 829 At 25°C
α-Pinene 858 At 20 °C
Potassium 860
NaK (eutectic) 866 At 20°C; 77% K and 23% Na
Benzene 870 At standard conditions
Monomethylhydrazine 874 At 20°C
Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine 880
Butyl acetate 882.5 n-Butyl acetate, at 20°C[6]
Ethylene oxide 882.6 At 10°C
Grain (corn, ear) 900
Aerozine 50 900 At 25°C
Mayonnaise (traditional) 910 Traditional recipe
Butter 911
Peanut oil 914
Palm oil 915
Lithium aluminium hydride 917
Ice 916.7 At 0 °C
Olive oil 918
Body fat 918
Lard 919
Corn oil 922
Coconut oil 924
Soya oil 927
Nitrous oxide (liquid) 931 At 0 °C at 31.1 bar
Curcumin 934.8 At 15 ºC
Sodium 970
Silicone 993
Milk (cow, heavy cream) 994
Mayonnaise (light) 1,000
Water 1,000 At 4 °C
Chloric acid 1,000 Estimated
Saline water 1,004 (0.9% NaCl)
Phenol 1,007
Pilsner (beer) 1,008 At standard conditions
Hydrazine 1,008.5 At 20 °C
Milk (cow, light cream) 1,012
Sea water 1,025 Average density at the surface
Naphthalene 1,025.3 At 20 °C
Milk (cow, whole) 1,030 At 20 °C
1,4-Dioxane 1,032.9 At 20 °C[7]
Milk (cow, skim) 1,033
Blood 1,035
Acetic acid 1,050
Skin 1,050
Human body (average) 1,062
Acetic anhydride 1,082 At 20 °C[8]
Formalin 1,090 37% aqueous solution, at 25 °C
Safrole 1,100
Carbon dioxide (liquid) 1,101 Liquid, at −37°C (saturation)
Sodium hypochlorite 1,110
Borax 1,121
Nylon 1,150
Oxygen (liquid) 1,155
2-Nitrotoluene 1,161.1 At 19°C
Ammonium acetate 1,170 At 20 °C
Plastics 1,175 Approx. for PP, PETE and PVC
Methanediol 1,199
Neon (liquid) 1,207 At boiling point
Acetone peroxide 1,220 Trimer[9]
Nitrocellulose 1,230
1,2-Dichloroethane 1,253.1 At 20 °C[10]
Glycerol 1,261 Standard conditions
Carbon disulfide 1,263.2 At 20 °C[11]
Aluminium chloride (hexahydrate) 1,300
Freon 12 (liquid) 1,311 Pressurized
Urea 1,320
Hexamine 1,330
Hydrazine sulfate 1,378 [12]
Corn syrup 1,380
Argon (liquid) 1,395.4 At boiling point
Pentaerythritol 1,396
Acetylsalicylic acid 1,400
Chlorobutanol 1,404
Honey 1,420
Boric acid 1,435
Salycilic acid 1,443 At 20 °C
Dinitrogen tetroxide 1,445 At 20 °C
Hydrogen peroxide 1,450 Pure, at 20 °C
Erythritol 1,450
Sodium acetate (trihydrate) 1,450 At 20 °C
Lithium hydroxide (anhydrous) 1,460
Sodium carbonate (decahydrate) 1,460
Rubidium (liquid) 1,460 At melting point
Sodium sulfate (decahydrate) 1,464
Sodium metabisulfite 1,480
Chloroform 1,483.2 At 20 °C[13]
Sorbitol 1,489
Fuming nitric acid 1,500
Fluorine (liquid) 1,505 At boiling point
Calcium acetate 1,509
Lithium hydrate (monohydrate) 1,510
Sodium carbonate (heptahydrate) 1,510
Magnesium sulfate (undecahydrate) 1,512
Xylitol 1,520
Sodium acetate (anhydrous) 1,528 At 20 °C
Rubidium 1,532 At room temperature
Citric acid (monohydrate) 1,542 At 18 °C
Sucrose 1,550
Calcium 1,550
Carbon dioxide (solid) 1,562 Dry ice, at at 1 atm and −78.5 °C
Chlorine (liquid) 1,562.5 At boiling point
Magnesium chloride (hexahydrate) 1,569
Zinc peroxide 1,570
Ammonium bicarbonate 1,586
Carbon tetrachloride 1,594 At 20 °C
Aluminium sulfate (octahydrate) 1,620
Monosodium glutamate 1,620 At 20 °C
Sulfur dichloride 1,621
Tetrachloroethylene 1,622 Standard conditions
Ascorbic acid 1,650
Oxalic acid (dihydrate) 1,653
Citric acid (anhydrous) 1,665
Sodium thiosulfate 1,667
Carbonic acid 1,668
Calcium gluconate (pentahydrate) 1,674 [14]
Magnesium sulfate (heptahydrate) 1,680
Phosphoric acid (85%) 1,685 Aqueous solution
Disulfur dichloride 1,688
Lead(II) acetate (decahydrate) 1,690
Fructose 1,694
Chromium(III) sulfate (octadecahydrate) 1,709
Calcium chloride (hexahydrate) 1,710
Aluminium nitrate (nonahydrate) 1,720
Ammonium nitrate 1,725 At 20 °C
Magnesium 1,740
Picric acid 1,763
Prussian blue 1,800 [15]
Iron(III) chloride (hexahydrate) 1,820
White phosphorus 1,823
Sulfuric acid (98%) 1,830
Calcium chloride (tetrahydrate) 1,830
Cesium (liquid) 1,843 At melting point
Sodium azide 1,846 At 20 °C
Calcium chloride (dihydrate) 1,850
Beryllium 1,850
Chromium(III) sulfate (pentadecahydrate) 1,860
Francium 1,870 Predicted, at room temperature
Phosphoric acid (liquid) 1,885 Aqueous solution
Iron(II) sulfate (heptahydrate) 1,895
Calcium nitrate (tetrahydrate) 1,896
Iron(III) sulfate (pentahydrate) 1,898
Oxalic acid (anhydrous) 1,900
Bone 1,900 Average human bone
2,4-Dinitrobromobenzene 1,910
Sulfur (gamma) 1,920
Sulfur trioxide 1,920 Liquid
Cobalt(II) chloride (hexahydrate) 1,924
Cesium 1,930 At room temperature
Iron(II) sulfate (hexahydrate) 1,934
Sulfur (beta) 1,960
Potassium chloride 1,984
Oleum (60%) 2,000
Sodium perchlorate (monohydrate) 2,020
Aluminium sulfide 2,020
Phosphoric acid (solid) 2,030 At 25 °C
Potassium hydroxide 2,044 At 20 °C
Lithium chloride 2,068
Copper(II) nitrate (hexahydrate) 2,070
Sulfur (alfa) 2,070
Zinc sulfate (hexahydrate) 2,072
Potassium nitrate 2,109
Lithium carbonate 2,110
Sodium hydroxide 2,130
Pyranine 2,150
Calcium chloride (anhydrous) 2,150
Iron(II) sulfate (pentahydrate) 2,150
Sodium chloride 2,165
Potassium peroxymonosulfate 2,170 Oxone
Trichloroisocyanuric acid 2.19 ± 0.1 g/cm3
Sodium bicarbonate 2,200
Polytetrafluoroethylene 2,200
Calcium hydroxide 2,211
Calcium carbide 2,220
Lead(IV) acetate 2,228 At 17 °C
Borosilicate glass 2,230 Average value
Tin(IV) chloride 2,230
Calcium chloride (monohydrate) 2,240
Sodium carbonate (monohydrate) 2,250
Sodium nitrate 2,257
Graphite 2,266
Copper(II) sulfate (pentahydrate) 2,286
Copper(II) nitrate (trihydrate) 2,320
Calcium sulfate (dihydrate) 2,320
Magnesium chloride (anhydrous) 2,320
Potassium chlorate 2,320
Silicon 2,330
Potassium metabisulfite 2,340
Red phosphorus 2,340
Boron 2,340
Calcium hypochlorite 2,350 At 20 °C
Violet phosphorus 2,360
Strontium (liquid) 2,375 At melting point
Phosphorus pentoxide 2,390
Manganese heptoxide 2,396 At 20 °C[16]
Concrete 2,400 Average density
Krypton (liquid) 2,413 At boiling point
Potassium carbonate 2,430
Magnesium sulfate (monohydrate) 2,445
Boron trioxide (liquid) 2,460 At melting point
Potassium persulfate 2,477
Cobalt(II) chloride (dihydrate) 2,477
Aluminium chloride (anhydrous) 2,480
Sodium perchlorate (anhydrous) 2,499.4
Calcium nitrate (anhydrous) 2,504
Copper(II) chloride (dihydrate) 2,510
Potassium perchlorate 2,523.9
Sodium carbonate (anhydrous) 2,540 At 25 °C
Lead(II) acetate (trihydrate) 2,550
Boron trioxide (trigonal) 2,550
Potassium antimonyl tartrate 2,600
Quartz 2,600
Sodium silicate 2,610
Strontium 2,640 At room temperature
Calcium perchlorate 2,651
Magnesium sulfate (anhydrous) 2,660
Potassium sulfate 2,660
Sodium sulfate (anhydrous) 2,664
Aluminium sulfate (anhydrous) 2,672
Potassium dichromate 2,676
Black phosphorus 2,690
Aluminium 2,700
Potassium permanganate 2,703
Tin(II) chloride (dihydrate) 2,710
Calcium carbonate 2,711 Calcite
Potassium bromide 2,740
Sodium bisulfate 2,740
Potassium manganate 2,780
Scandium (liquid) 2,800 At melting point
Sodium peroxide 2,805
Potassium ferrate 2,829 [17]
Calcium carbonate 2,830 Aragonite
Chloroauric acid (tetrahydrate) 2,890
Iron(III) chloride (anhydrous) 2,898
Zinc chloride 2,907
Xenon (liquid) 2,942 At boiling point
Calcium sulfate (anhydrous) 2,960
Scandium 2,985 At room temperature
Iron(II) sulfate (monohydrate) 3,000
Copper(II) nitrate (anhydrous) 3,050
Iron(III) sulfate (anhydrous) 3,097
Chromium(III) sulfate (anhydrous) 3,100
Bromine 3,102.8 Standard conditions
Potassium iodide 3,123
Boron trioxide (monoclinic) 3,146
Barium chlorate 3,180
Calcium fluoride 3,180
Barium nitrate 3,240
Lead(II) acetate (anhydrous) 3,250 At 20 °C
Diiodomethane 3,325
Barium (liquid) 3,338 At melting point
Calcium oxide 3,340
Vanadium pentoxide 3,357
Copper(II) hydroxide 3,368
Copper(II) chloride (anhydrous) 3,386
Zinc chromate 3,430
Cobalt(II) chloride (anhydrous) 3,560
Copper oxychloride 3,500
Diamond 3,510
Barium 3,530 At room temperature
Zinc sulfate (anhydrous) 3,540
Chevreul's salt 3,570 [18]
Copper(II) sulfate (anhydrous) 3,600
Iron(II) sulfate (anhydrous) 3,650
Caesium hydroxide 3,675
Strontium carbonate 3,740
Titanium dioxide 3,780 Anatase form
Chloroauric acid (anhydrous) 3,900
Tin(II) chloride (anhydrous) 3,950
Zinc phosphate 3,998
Basic copper carbonate 4,000
Iodoform 4,008
Zinc sulfide 4,090
Copper(I) chloride 4,145
Titanium dioxide 4,180 Brookite
Titanium dioxide 4,230 Rutile form
Yttrium (liquid) 4,240 At melting point
Barium carbonate 4,286
Nitrogen triiodide 4,300 ±0.1 g/cm3[19]
Carbon tetraiodide 4,320
Silver nitrate 4,350 At 24 °C
Zinc carbonate 3.398 At 20 °C[20]
Radon (liquid) 4,400 At boiling point
Yttrium 4,472
Copper chromite 4,500
Caesium iodide 4,510
Lead(II) nitrate 4,530
Titanium 4,540
Tungsten hexafluoride (solid) 4,560 At −9 °C
Strontium oxide 4,700
Selenium 4,800
Barium manganate 4,850
Barium iodide (dihydrate) 4,916
Iodine 4,933
Iron(II,III) oxide 5,000
Manganese dioxide 5,026
Barium iodide (anhydrous) 5,150
Cobalt(III) oxide 5,180
Chromium(III) oxide 5,220
Iron(III) oxide 5,242
Germanium 5,323
Radium 5,500 At room temperature
Zinc oxide 5,610
Arsenic 5,727
Bismuth(III) iodide 5,778
Zirconium (liquid) 5,800 At melting point
Gallium 5,910 At room temperature
Lanthanum (liquid) 5,940 At melting point
Copper(I) oxide 6,000
Gallium (liquid) 6,095 At melting point
Vanadium 6,100
Basic lead chromate 6,120
Lead chromate 6,120
Lead(II) iodide 6,160
Lanthanum 6,162 At room temperature
Ytterbium (liquid) 6,210 At room temperature
Tellurium 6,240
Copper(II) oxide 6,310
Astatine 6,350 Predicted, at room temperature
Praseodymium (liquid) 6,500 At melting point
Zirconium 6,520
Cerium (liquid) 6,550 At melting point
Antimony 6,690
Cerium 6,770 At room temperature
Praseodymium 6,770 At room temperature
Neodymium (liquid) 6,890 At melting point
Ytterbium 6,900 At room temperature
Zinc 7,000
Neodymium 7,010 At room temperature
Indium (liquid) 7,020 At melting point
Europium (liquid) 7,130 At melting point
Samarium (liquid) 7,160 At melting point
Chromium 7,200
Promethium 7,260 At room temperature
Europium 7,264 At room temperature
Indium 7,310 At room temperature
Tin 7,310
Manganese 7,325
Gadolinium (liquid) 7,900 At melting point
Samarium 7,520 At room temperature
Terbium (liquid) 7,650 At melting point
Iron 7,780
Gadolinium 7,900 At room temperature
Terbium(III) oxide 7,910
Terbium 8,230 At room temperature
Lead(II,IV) oxide 8,300
Holmium (liquid) 8,340 At melting point
Dysprosium (liquid) 8,370 At melting point
Dysprosium 8,540 At room temperature
Thulium (liquid) 8,560 At melting point
Niobium 8,570
Brass 8,600
Cadmium 8,650
Holmium 8,790 At room temperature
Einsteinium 8,840 At room temperature
Erbium (liquid) 8,860 At melting point
Bismuth trioxide 8,900
Cobalt 8,900
Nickel 8,900
Copper 8,940
Erbium 9,066 At room temperature
Polonium (alpha) 9,196
Lutetium (liquid) 9,300 At melting point
Thulium 9,320 At room temperature
Polonium (beta) 9,398
Lead(II) oxide 9,530
Bismuth 9,750
Lutetium 9,841 At room temperature
Actinium 10,000 At room temperature
Molybdenum 10,220
Silver 10,500
Technertium 11,000
Thallium (liquid) 11,220 At melting point
Lead 11,340
Thorium 11,700
Thallium 11,850 At room temperature
Hafnium (liquid) 12,000 At melting point
Americium 12,000 At room temperature
Palladium 12,023
Rhodium 12,410
Ruthenium 12,450
Berkelium (beta) 13,250 At room temperature
Hafnium 13,310 At room temperature
Curium 13,510 At room temperature
Mercury 13,546
Berkelium (alpha) 14,780 At room temperature
Californium 15,100 At room temperature
Protactinium 15,370 At room temperature
Tungsten carbide 15,600
Tantalum 16,600
Neptunium (gamma) 18,000 At 639 °C
Uranium 18,900
Tungsten 19,250
Gold 19,320
Neptunium (beta) 19,360 At 313 °C
Plutonium 19,840
Neptunium (alpha) 20,450 At 282 °C
Rhenium 21,020
Platinum 21,450
Iridium 22,420
Osmium 22,570
Rutherfordium 23,200 Predicted, at room temperature
Copernicium 23,700 Predicted, at room temperature
Roentgenium 28,700 Predicted, at room temperature
Dubnium 29,300 Predicted, at room temperature
Darmstadtum 34,800 Predicted, at room temperature
Seaborgium 35,000 Predicted, at room temperature
Bohrium 37,100 Predicted, at room temperature
Meitnerium 37,400 Predicted, at room temperature
Hassium 40,700 Predicted, at room temperature

Density of materials at different temperatures

Air

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+727 0.340
+227 0.696
+35 1.146
+30 1.164
+27 1.161
+25 1.184
+20 1.204
+15 1.225
+10 1.247
+5 1.269
0 1.293
-5 1.316
-10 1.342
-15 1.368
-20 1.395
-25 1.423
-73 1.746
-173 3.556

Ammonia

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 °C 1,073
+20 °C 1,170

Ammonium acetate

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+15 °C 0.73
0 °C 0,769
-33.34 0.86
-33.3 681.9
-80 °C 817

Argon

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+27 1.449
0 1.784
-185 1,395.4

Carbon dioxide

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 1.799
-78 1,562

Carbon disulfide

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 1,262
+20 1,263.2
0 1,292.7
-186 1,539

Carbon monoxide

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 1.145
0 1.250
-191.5 789

Carbon tetrachloride

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+20 1,594
-80 1,809
-186 1,831

Chloroform

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+60 1,394
+25 1,488.5
+20 1,483.2
-20 1,564

Helium

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+27 0.164
0 0.1786
-269 147

Hydrazine

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+50 982
+25 1,004
+20 1,008.5
+15 1,014
0 1,021

Hydrogen

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+125 0.6061
+100 0.6465
+75 0.6928
+50 0.7461
+25 0.8085
0 0.08988
-25 0.9708
-50 1.0793
-75 1.2154
-100 1.3911
-125 1.6271
-150 1.9617
-175 2.4760
-200 3.3817
-225 5.5430
-250 68.747
-255 74.252[21]

Ice

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
0 916
-50 922
-100 927

Methane

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 0.656
-90 162
-161.65 422.62

Manganese heptoxide

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+20 2,396
-30 2,790

Methanol

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 786.6
+20 791.5
+15 796

NaK

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+100 855
+21 866

Naphthalene

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+100 962.5
+20 1,025.3
+15.5 1,145

Nitrogen

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+27 1.145
-199 808

Oxygen

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+27 1.308
-186 1,155

Potassium hydroxide

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+25 2,120
+20 2,044

Silver nitrate

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+210 3,970
+24 4,350

Water

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+100 958.4
+80 971.8
+60 983.2
+50 988.03
+40 992.2
+30 995.6502
+25 997.0479
+22 997.7735
+20 998.2071
+15 999.1026
+10 999.7026
+4 999.9720
0 999.8395
-10 998.117
-20 993.547
-30 983.854

The values below 0 °C refer to supercooled water.

References

  1. ↑ http://www.megs.ca/MSDS/Pdf/Acetylene.PDF
  2. ↑ Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs and Biologicals. Rahway, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 1989., p. 817
  3. ↑ Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL)
  4. ↑ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sial/271004
  5. ↑ Lewis, R.J. Sr.; Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 14th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY 2001., p. 737
  6. ↑ Haynes, W.M. (ed.) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 91st ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Inc., 2010-2011, p. 3-76
  7. ↑ O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. 13th Edition, Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2001., p. 581
  8. ↑ Lide, DR (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 81st Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2000, p. 3-5
  9. ↑ O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2006., p. 1649
  10. ↑ Lide, DR (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 81st Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2000, p. 3-154
  11. ↑ Lide, D.R. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 86TH Edition 2005-2006. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL 2005, p. 3-88
  12. ↑ O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. 13th Edition, Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2001., p. 852
  13. ↑ EPA, 1998
  14. ↑ Wieczorek; Blaszczyk; Krol; Acta Crystallographica, Section C: Crystal Structure Communications; vol. 52; nb. Pt 5;(1996); p. 1193-1198
  15. ↑ Lide, D.R. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 88TH Edition 2007-2008. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL 2007, p. 4-69
  16. ↑ Glemser, O.; Schroeder, H.; Zeitschrift fuer Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie; vol. 271; (1953); p. 293 - 304
  17. ↑ Hoppe, Martin L.; Schlemper, E. O.; Murmann, R. K.; Acta Crystallographica, Section B: Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry; vol. 38; (1982); p. 2237 - 2239
  18. ↑ Etard, A.; Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences; vol. 93; (1881); p. 725 - 727
  19. ↑ http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.55511.html
  20. ↑ http://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/chemical/4804
  21. ↑ http://hydrogen.pnl.gov/hydrogen-data/hydrogen-density-different-temperatures-and-pressures
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